Lifespan Development (Free Access)

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT (Read: Development Through the Lifespan)

  • Lifespan development is the scientific study of courses of growth, change and stability that occurs throughout the human lifespan.
    • Interdisciplinary in nature
  • Key development issues
    • Nature versus nurture
      • Nature viewpoint meant that development was based on natural progression in terms of heredity and genetic makeup and evolution. 
        • It rejected any environmental influences.
      • Nurture viewpoint was that development was a result of only environmental influences and nothing is because of natural impulses.
      • The resolution is that development across the lifespan is a result of both nature and nurture.
    • Stability vs change
      • The debate was whether development is continuous over time or is it stable. The conclusion was that it is both. 
        • In different times, development is constantly changing such as during adolescence and others, during early adulthood it is stable.
    • Change maybe qualitative or quantitative
      • Quantitative change is change in number or amount such as in height, weight or vocabulary.
    • Qualitative change is change in kind, structure or organization, such as the change from non-verbal to verbal communication. 
    • Continuity vs Discontinuity
      • Continuity view suggests that change is uniform and gradual
      • Discontinuity theory suggests that change can be rapid with qualitatively different stages evident across the life span
    • Critical vs Sensitive periods:
      • Critical periods: if a specific event doesn’t occur at a specific time, then it will have an impact on development. E.g. Imprinting in Konrad Lorenz and duckings
      • Imprinting: is an instinct where during a critical period in early development, a young geese forms an attachment to its the first moving object and follows it around.
        • This is automatic and irreversible.
      •  However, critical periods are not absolute or fixed but can be changed to an extent.
      • Therefore, rather than looking critical periods when development takes place, the focus shifted to sensitive periods.
      • Sensitive period is the time where if an individual is presented with certain types of stimuli then they would be better at learning or performing certain kinds of behaviour.
  • Domains of Development 
    • Physical development refers to growth of body and brain and change or stability in sensory capacities, motor skills and health.
    • Cognitive development refers to change or stability in mental abilities such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning and creativity.
    • Psychosocial Development refers to change and stability in emotions, personality and social relationships. 
    • Moral Development is the process through which children develop proper attitudes and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms, rules, and laws. 
  • Periods of Development – to meet the needs of understanding, development is divided into periods.
    • Stage                                               Approximate Age
    • Prenatal                                         Conception to birth
    • Infancy                                          Birth to 3 years
    • Early childhood                            3 years to 6 years
    • Middle & Late childhood             6-12 years
    • Adolescence                                             12-20 years
    • Young adulthood                          20-40 years
    • Middle adulthood                         40-65 years
    • Late adulthood                              65 years to death
    •  Prenatal stage is when the baby is still in the womb and is not formed yet. 
      • It involves a rapid multiplication of cells to form a complex organism in an approx. 9 month period.
    • Infancy is a time of dependence. From birth to 2 years
      • For two years the baby is involved in acquiring psychological abilities such as language, thought, and motor coordination
    • Early childhood is during the preschool years from 2-6 years 
      • Children become self-sufficient, develop goal directed behaviour, and play with peers. 
    • Middle & Late childhood correspond to the elementary school years. Age 6-11(puberty) 
      • Fundamental skills of reading and writing are acquired, achievement becomes a central theme. Formal introduction into one’s culture.
    • Adolescence involves a rapid growth spurt –physical and sexual. Age Puberty- 20 years
      • Issues of independence and identity
      • Thought becomes more abstract and logical
      • Understanding one’s sexuality becomes important.
    • Early adulthood involves establishing financial and individual independence. Age, 20-40 years
    • Middle adulthood involves increasing individual’s financial and developing social responsibility. Age, 40-65 years.
    • Late adulthood involves developing and changing to new rules and dealing with loss of friends and family members including spouse. Age 65>
  • Principles of Development – Provides a theoretical lens to the various aspects within the domains involved in the study of lifespan development
    • Development is lifelong 
    • Development involves both gain and loss 
    • Development is Multidirectional: meaning that development takes place in different speeds. 
    • Development is multidimensional: meaning that it moves in different domain, simultaneously.
    • Development is plastic: meaning that it can change whenever and is modifiable 
    • Development is influenced by the historical and cultural context
  • Individual differences: Differences in characteristics, influences or developmental outcomes. They are based on
    • Heredity and environment
    • Major contextual influences
    • Normative and non-normative influences
  • Heredity & Environment
    • Heredity: Inborn, innate characteristics that are inherited from the biological parents at conception through genes
      • These affect multiple parts of development such as intelligence, personality and resilience.
    • Environment: the effect of the outside world on an individual. 
      • Learning that comes from experience.
  • Major contextual Factors such as family and neighbourhood play a great role in shaping any individual. There diversities must be kept in mind.
  • Normative & non-normative influences
    • Development must be understood in terms of changes that affect a majority and a minority
    • Normative: An event and its impact happens in a related way for most people that belong to a group.
      • Normative age graded influences: Natural and situational influences that are similar for individuals of a specific age range.
        • Biological changes are usually more foreseeable than social changes e.g. adolescence as compared to French revolution
      • Normative history graded influences: Natural and environmental effects that are related with historical changes affect the group that exists around the same time.
        • These are common only for individuals of a specific generation e.g. world war 2
    • Non normative influences: An unusual event that happens to a specific person or a typical event that happens at an exceptional point of time.
      • Non- normative influences are positive or negative 

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT (Read: Life-Span Development)

  • Begins with prenatal development.
  • Prenatal development is the stage before the birth of the infant. It begins with conception.
  • Conception occurs when the male sperm fuses with the female ova. 
    • It is also known as fertilization 
  • Divided into three parts:
  • Germinal Stage/Period of Zygote
    • first 2 weeks after conception. 
    • Development of zygote with increased cell division,
    • Ends with the implantation of the zygote uterus wall.
      • Cell Division
        • Mitotis
        • The Two-cell Human Embryo- 1 ½ days
        • 16-32 cells = 72 hours
        • 64 cells = 96 hours
      • Formation of the Blastocyst
        • Blastocyst: a sphere that is filled with liquid that would eventually form the infant
  • Embryonic Period
    • Occurs 2-8 weeks after conception.
    • The rate of cell division increases leading to Organogenesis:
      • The process of the developing organs
    • Structures that form in this stage:
      • Yolk Sac
      • Placenta
      • Umbilical Cord
    • Embryonic disk creates three layers that form the structures of the infant
      • Endoderm: forms the digestive system, liver, pancreas , salivary glands and respiratory system
      • Mesoderm: forms the cells of the skin, nails, and hair follicles, teeth,
      • Ectoderm: forms the sense organs and nervous system
    • By the 8th week: Rapid growth continues which can be seen in the formation of
      • Body parts such as arms, legs, fingers and toes
      • Facial parts such as eyes, ears, jaws and neck 
      • Internal organs diversify and become separate
      • Functional sense organs
      • Response to touch 
    • Size of the embryo is around 1 inch and weighs around 4-6 grams 
  • Period of the Foetus 
    • Begins at 8 weeks or 2 months after conception 
    • 7 months ( 9-38 weeks) (average)
    • By the end of the fetal stage the infant should be around 20 inches in height and 3 kgs in weight on average
    • Appearance of fingernails, toenails and eyelids.
    • Sense organs taste and smell begin to develop.
    • Organization of organs, muscles and nervous system 
    • Stronger heartbeat
      • Detectable through the fetaloscope
    • Genitals are formed by this time 
      • Sex determination can occur
    • Foetus moves and is active
  • Prenatal development is also divided into trimesters. 
    • First trimester involves both prenatal stages
    • Second and third trimesters are made up of the fetal stage only
  • Some aspects of the infant:
  • Covered with the vernix caseosa  
    • Shielding it from chapping from the amniotic fluid.
    • Hair called lanugo  
      • Aids in vernix sticking to the skin.
  • After birth the infant is assessed using the APGAR scale
    • Appearance
    • Pulse
    • Grimace
    • Activity
    • Respiration
  • Post birth the post natal stage begins, starting with infancy
  • Infancy: is the developmental period from birth to 24 months.
    • Reflexes: are innate, automatic, unlearnt, and involuntary responses to stimuli
    • Human beings have many reflexes from birth and some develop slightly later
      • Rooting: This reflex starts when the corner of the baby’s mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn his or her head and open his or her mouth to follow and root in the direction of the stroking. This helps the baby find the breast or bottle to start feeding. This reflex lasts about 4 months
      • Sucking: This reflex doesn’t start until about the 32nd week of pregnancy and is not fully developed until about 36 weeks. Premature babies may have a weak or immature sucking ability because of this. Because babies also have a hand-to-mouth reflex that goes with rooting and sucking, they may suck on their fingers or hands.
      • Eye Blink:
      • Tonic: When a baby’s head is turned to one side, the arm on that side stretches out and the opposite arm bends up at the elbow. This is often called the fencing position. This reflex lasts until the baby is about 5 to 7 months old.
      • Babinski: This reflex takes place when the foot of the baby is stroked and all its fingers fan out
      • Moro: This reflex causes the baby to cry, throw back his or her head, and then pull his or her limbs into the body
      • Darwinian Grasp/Palmar: Stroking the palm of a baby’s hand causes the baby to close his or her fingers in a grasp. The grasp reflex lasts until the baby is about 5 to 6 months old. A similar reflex in the toes lasts until 9 to 12 months.
      • Walking/Stepping: This reflex is also called the walking or dance reflex because a baby appears to take steps or dance when held upright with his or her feet touching a solid surface. This reflex lasts about 2 months.
  • Most reflexes disappear soon
    • first 6 months to 1 year
    • Attributed to the increase in voluntary control over motor behaviour 
  • Only reflexes that serve a protective functions remain
    • Blinking
    • Coughing
    • Gagging
    • Sneezing
  • Principles of Development: 
    • Cephalocaudal: development occurs from top (head) to bottom (legs)
    • Proximodistal: Development occurs from the center of the body outward
    • Independence of systems: Development occurs independently in different part of the part
    • Interdependence of systems: development occurs as a result of coordination of the difference part of the body, in conjunction with one another
  • Gross Motor Development
    • Begins with head control, movement – crawling to walking to running to jumping
    • Hand eye coordination begins
    • Depth Perception begins
  • Brain Development
    • Corpus callosum: helps coordinate between the hemispheres
    • Hemisphere specialization
      • Right: mechanical skills and spatial reasoning
      • Left:, logic, arithmetic, and language development
    • Size of the brain increases due to new connections
    • Synaptic pruning: removal of unrequired neurons is done
    • Increased myelination: aids in stronger connections
  • Early childhood (2-6yrs)
    • Height growth: By the end of early childhood the average child is around 3.5 feet
      • Gender differences: boys are taller than girls
    • Weight: By the end of early childhood the average child is around 15 kilos
      • Gender difference: no difference
    • Nutritional needs: 1500-1800 calories per day on average
      • Too much food intake can lead to obesity
    • Sleep should be for 10-12 hours 
    • Gross Motor Skills:
      • Goal-directed behaviour
      • Movements are simple eventually culminating into athletic movements
    • Fine Motor Skills
      • Hand-eye coordination develops further
  • Middle childhood (6-11/puberty)
    • Height: By the end around 4 feet 10 inches
      • Gender difference: girls taller than boys 
    • Weight: 20-35 kgs 
      • Gender difference: boys heavier than girls
    • Appearance is more adult like – learner bodies
    • Gross motor
      • Athletic prowess
      • Training aids development
      • Rough and Tumble Play
  • Adolescence (Puberty- 20)
    • Height: average growth is around 7 inches
      • Growth spurt: increase in height and weight during puberty
    • Weight- Average growth by 20+kgs
    • Adult like body
    • Fully coordinated movements
    • Puberty: Attainment of sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce
      • Earlier attainment compared to earlier generations – secular trends
      • Increase in sex hormones – gonadotropins 
      • Boys: production of sperm, age 12-14
        • first ejaculation is called Spermache
      • Girls: menstruation, age 8-12
        • first menstruation is called menarche 
  • Puberty can be noticed by changes in primary and secondary sex characteristics
    • Primary sex characteristics are seen in organs directly related to reproduction
      • For males: Enlargement of penis and scrotum sac
      • For females vaginal discharge and changes in Uterus lining
    • Secondary sex characteristics: Physiological signs of sexual maturation that do not involve sexual organs.
      • Females: Breast development, growth of body and pubic hair, oilier skin
      • Males: Growth of body and pubic hair, deepening of voice, oilier hair
  • Adulthood (Early and Middle – 20-40, 40-65)
    • Age related visual and auditory problems
    • Presbyopia: deterioration in sight due to age
    • Presbycusis: deterioration in hearing due to age
    • Basal metabolism: basic rate of calorie burning drops
    • Health: optimum in early adulthood, drops as one gets older
      • Same as strength for energy  
      • Athletic prowess
      • Self-serving bias that no harm will come to the individual as they are in peak physical condition
    • Osteoporosis will develop by the end of middle adulthood
  • Late Adulthood (>65)
    • Primary Aging- aging due to change in chronological age accompanied by body deterioration
    • Secondary Aging- aging due to lifestyle factors and diseases 
    • Functional age: the measure of a person’s ability to function effectively in his or her physical and social environment in comparison with others of similar chronological age.
  • Theories of aging
    • Genetic Programming Theories or Cellular clock theory: Biological aging is due to a preprogrammed timetable where the genes stop cellular growth after a certain limit known as the Hayflick limit.
    • Free radical theory: due to excess amounts of electrons that harm the body
    • Variable Rate theories: Individual difference in growing older
      • Influenced by external and internal factors.
    • Wear and tear theory: aging is due to usage of body parts.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Read: Cognitive Psychology: Mind and Brain)

  • Piaget’s cognitive development
    • Schemas are mental representation of organized mental processes
      • Two processes of schemas development
        • Assimilation- add new but similar information into existing schema
        • Accommodation- changing the schema entirely in the response to new stimuli
    • Basic premise of Piaget’s theory is that Action=Knowledge
  • Stage wise division of cognitive development
    • Sensorimotor stage (Birth-2 years)- 
      • Cognitive developments and actions of the infant begin with reflexes,
      •  Followed by non-goal directed habitual movements called as primary circular reactions
      • Culminating in goal directed behaviour as secondary and tertiary circular reactions
      • By 18 months leading to development of symbolic thought. 
      • By 8 months the infant also develops Object permanence
        • Object permanence is the realization that objects in the outside world remain constant even when they are out of sight
    • Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
      • Children use of symbolic thought but aren’t capable of using logic.
      • Operations- are internalized set of actions that allow children to mentally do what they had done physically before. 
      • Centration: children pay attention on one part of a stimuli to the exclusion of all others
      • Conservation: child’s belief in the permanence of certain attributes of the objects even when surface level changes are made.
        • Children lack conservation skills
          • Maybe due to centration
        • In terms of volume, matter, area and length
      • Ego centrism: inability to take someone else’s perspective.
      • Animism: children’s belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities
      • Irreversibility: Child’s failure to understand that an operation can go in two or more directions. 
        • 2-2 = 4, but not 4-2=2
  • Concrete operational stage: (7-12 years) 
    • Children can understand and derive logic but not abstract thinking.
    • Classification and categorization: Children can divide things into sets and purpose about their relationships
    • Seriation: Children have the ability to put objects in a structured manner. E.g. lengthwise, weight, size or colour.
    • Transitive Inference: Understanding relationships between 2 objects by knowing the relationship of each to the third. E.g. a>b>c, therefore, a>c
    • Spatial intelligence: Children can give directions to places and locations. And estimate distances between places.
    • Inductive and Deductive reasoning:  Logical reasoning is the go-to thought process and it takes over intuitive reasoning but only when all aspects of a situation are known.
    • Conservation and Reversibility is now possible
      • Horizontal Decalage: inability of a child in this stage to understand that transfer of learning from one type of conservation to other types is possible
  • Formal operational stage (11 and 15) 
    • Individuals move beyond logic and think in abstract manner.
    • Abstract thought also involves meta-cognition
      • Meta-cognition is thinking about thought
    • Argumentativeness: Adolescent develop formal reasoning skills and actively seek out opportunities to test their skills.
    • Adolescents have the capability to consider several, differing options but they lack effective techniques to choose the best suited one leading to indecisiveness
    • Apparent hypocrisy: Adolescents also don’t seem to distinguish the difference between speaking about an ideal while pursuing something entirely different
    • Imaginary audience: the belief that an observer who exists in an adolescent’s mind and is as concerned with the adolescent’s thoughts and actions as the adolescent is.
    • Personal fable: Adolescents’ conviction that they are unique and special
    • Hypothetical- deductive reasoning : Adolescents have the cognitive capability to develop solution based hypotheses for problem
      • They can then methodically deduce the optimum path to follow in solving the problem. 
  • Evaluation of Piaget’s theory
    • Based on limited data – his 3 children
    • Extreme generalization without taking into account differing culture
    • Object Permanence develops earlier in some cultures 
    • Thinking begins earlier around 6-7 months 
    • Logical thinking develops much earlier
    • Ego centrism is absent for some 2 year old children as well
    • Formal operations do not develop for most adults and they aren’t as rational
    • Empirically not much research support
    • Piaget’s theory still inspires research 
  • Post formal thought
    • Cognitive theorist believe that formal reasoning and abstract thinking are not the only capabilities of adult cognitive development.
    • Thinking in adulthood is much more about grey areas in life that require free, flexible, and individualistic options
    • There are also elements of use of personal experiences and intuition
    • Adult thinking also requires dealing with uncertainty
  • Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
    • Vygotsky’s theorystresses the effect of an individual’s culture and social interaction in helping guide cognitive development
    • Cognitive growth is a cooperative process
      • Social interactions aid in its development
      • Also relevant are the primary language and the individuals cultural context
    • Language and thought are separate initially,
      • Later language takes up the role of social communication 
      • Transition takes place between 3 and 7 years
      • This separation leads to private speech- Talking to oneself with no intent to communicate.
        • Helps in transition from directed speech to conversation with self to social speech.
        • self- regulation and inner control over behaviour
        • Vygotsky viewed it as foundation for all higher cognitive processes
    • Zone of Proximal Development
      • The point at which a child cannot complete a task alone but can learn to do the same with the help of an expert
      • Scaffolding- help provided by an expert to help the person in ZPD to learn the new cognitive skill
      • More knowledgable other: is the expert that can guide the novices
        • The MKO need not be an expert but someone who understands the concepts in discussion better than the group
        • Basis for educational institutions
          • Peer Collaboration
          • Reciprocal Teaching
      • Cultural variations 
        • in ability to learn 
  • Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory
    • Helps explain cultural variety in cognition
    • Highlights importance of teaching
    • Emphasis on language
    • Not enough information about biological contributions to cognition
    • Vague in explanation of change

Language Development

  • Language is a system of symbols used to communicate with others.
    • Infinite generativity: meaning that unlimited number of words and sentences can be created
  • Language production – Broca’s area- frontal lobe
  • Language comprehension – Wernicke’s area- temporal lobe
  • Characteristics of Language
    • Phonology: sound systems 
      • Ba or ar 
      • /k/- same sound of k for ski and cat
      • Basis for constructing large and expandable set of words
    • Morphology: the study of the rules for combining morphemes
      • Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language. 
      • Help- single morpheme
      • Help-er two morphemes 
        • “er” means “one who”
      • Not all morphemes are words with meaning: 
        • Pre, tion, and ing
    • Syntax: the ways/laws/rules in which words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. 
      • You went there, didn’t you?- is correct
      • didn’t you, you went there? – is incorrect
    • Semantics- meanings of words and sentences
      • Incorrect semantic: The bike spoke to the boy into buying a chocolate bar
      • Syntactically correct but semantically incorrect
      • Pragmatics: the use of suitable dialogue and information while having a conversation, especially in a social context
        • Taking turns in discussion
        • Using “a” and “the” correctly
        • Using polite language in appropriate situations
  • How do these characteristics develop?
    • Nature vs Nurture
      • Learnt only because of environmental influences-nurture
      • Behaviourist model-based on Nurture
        • Language is built on learning via reinforcement or vicarious learning through imitation
      • Criticisms:
        • Novelty of sentences and words
        • Reinforcements are in the form of smiles and praises even to half-correct words or sentences
        • Can’t explain how most children develop language around the same age
      • Noam Chomsky questioned this approach to learning language
  • His claims were that children are born with Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
  • LAD is a biological endowment that enables the child to detect certain language categories, such as phonemes and morphemes
  • Support for LAD:
    • Uniformity in learning language across cultures
    • Criticisms: 
      • Wild/Feral children don’t fit the model
      • Language cannot exist in a social vacuum
      • No language gene (which should exist according to Chomsky)
      • Highly focused on linguistic aspects of language like syntax and grammar, however, language is learnt in a more practical physical and social space.
    • Learnt only because of innate capability-nature
    • Interactionist approach
      • Mix of the two- nature and nurture; behaviourist and cognitive
      • Biological Influences
      • Children reach language milestones at a similar age.
      • Brain is most highly responsible for turning humans into linguistic creatures
  • Process of language development
    • Pre-linguistic communication: Children making variety of sounds before babbling begin
      • cooing, crying, gurgling, murmuring etc.
      • Not meaningful but aids language development
    • Babbling: making speech like sounds
      • Eg. Ee-ee-ee, bee-bee-bee
      • Starts by 3 months of age and lasts till approx 1 year
      • Babbling is a universal phenomenon; across all cultures
      • It begins to become progressively more complex
      • By 6 months babbling is more characteristic of the tone of their language
    • First words
      • Between 10-14 months, for some by 9 months
      • Typically continues till 18 months
      • Rapid increase in vocabulary
      • 15 months- 10 words
      • >18 months- language growth spurt- goes from 50-400.
      • Holophrases: one word expressions that mean whole phrase where meaning is dependent on the context
      • North American kids usual use more nouns
      • Chinese mandarin will use more verbs
    • First Sentences
      • Around 18 months, linking two words together takes place to convey a single thought.
      • Variability in age. 
      • Syntax is maintained, albeit some words are excluded – telegraphic speech.
    • Under-extention- using one word for only one concept and not others
    • Over-extention – words that are used too broadly for anything part of that category
    • Adults engage in infant directed speech, earlier known as motherese
    • Private Speech – speech directed towards themselves
    • Social Speech – speech directed towards another and meant to be understood by them

Moral Development

  • Morality is based and dependent on one’s social group/individual thought process
  • Development
    • the gradual development of an individual’s concept of right or wrong – conscious, religion, social and attitudes
  • Kohlberg’s theory (Stage Theory)
    • sequentially
    • Movement from one stage to another occurs as a result of realisation of inadequacies in a person’s way of functioning and dilemma’s relating to morality.
    • created Heinz dilemmas
    • Six stages and 3 subcategories
      • Preconventional Moral Development
        • Stage 1 – obedience and punishment
        • Stage 2 – naively egotistical
      • Conventional Moral Development
        • Stage 3 – “good boy-good girl” orientation
        • Stage 4 – law and social order
      • Postconventional Moral Development
        • Stage 5 – legalistic social contract
        • Stage 6 – universal ethical principles
  • Level 1 – Preconventional (0-9)
    • Stage 1 – Obedience and Punishment
      • Young kids are usually found in this stage
      • Adults have a tendency to behave similarly in certain situations
      • Individuals in this stage consider rules and regulations to be fixed and absolute and thereby follow them in order to avoid punishment
      • Another reason for this is to protect one’s own physical well-being
    • Stage 2 – Naively egotistical
      • Egocentric view point
      • As long as it serves their own needs, the reasoning is fine
      • May follow you scratch my back, I scratch your back principle
  • Level 2 – Conventional Morality (10-15)
    • Stage 3 – “good boy-good girl” orientation
      • Social expectation and roles are extremely important to be followed
      • Conformity is an important value
      • Being ‘nice’ for peer approval is important
      • Intentions more than actions are valued
      • Can be empathetic when required
    • Stage 4 – Law and Social Order
      • Consider the entire society as a whole
      • values law and order are important
      • respects authority and obeys it
      • decisions must be made keeping the majority in mind
      • 80% of the human population is here
  • Level 3 – Postconventional Morality (16+)
    • Stage 5 – Legalistic Social Contract
      • The individual takes into account the values, opinions, and beliefs of others
      • Believes in making decisions that benefit the most number of people
      • Societal rules are dependent on the people living in it
      • Values minorities and systems for change
    • Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles
      • Abstract reasoning as long as it makes sense
      • Law and order not absolute if they aren’t fulfilling their purpose
      • willing to accept consequences of disobedience
      • dignity of human being is sacred
  • Sex Differences in Morality
    • Males
      • Justice
      • Rights
      • No partiality
      • Code of conduct
    • Females
      • Care
      • Responsibility
      • Care for suffering
      • Emotional
  • Gilligan’s three stages in Women Morality
    • Orientation towards individual’s survival
      • Initially importance given to what is practically beneficial for oneself
      • Later a transition begins and the individuals moves from selfishness to responsibility 
        • This involves looking at benefitting other people as well as themselves
    • Goodness as self-sacrifice
      • Self-sacrifice to fulfil the wishes of others
      • Gradual transition from goodness to truth 
    • Morality of non-violence
      • An equivalence between self and others is established
      • Hurting anyone is seen as immoral
      • This is the most sophisticated form of moral reasoning
  • Damon → Positive Justice (3 stages)
    • Level 0- Age 4-5
      • I should get everything
    • Level 1- Age 5-9
      • Strict equality and reciprocity
      • Merit is most sacred
    • Level 2- Age 10+
      • Most aspects in life are relative
      • Sometimes special needs must be considered while others deserving people must benefit

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 

  • Emotional development is a methodical process where emotions get complex overtime, beginning from simple emotions.
    • Emotions develop from childhood and showcase a tendency of the child’s personality
    • Emotions and its expression vary in different cultures and societies
  • Emotional Development In Infancy
    • Emotion at this stage are usually noticed when the child either cries or smiles 
    • Emotions serve certain purposes 
      • Makes them sociable,
      • Builds connections and communication
      • Aids in emotional regulations 
      • Sometime during REM sleep reflexive smile is noticed due to subcortical activity
    • Social smile develops around 10 months
      •  It occurs when the child smiles or laughs at someone it recognizes
      •  Indicates cognitive development 
        • Shows control over outcomes
        • And object permanence 
    • Stranger Anxiety And Separation Anxiety
      • Around 6-8 months
      • Stranger anxiety is the infant’s fear of meeting strangers. 
      • Separation anxiety is the fear that infants experience when separated from a caregiver 
        • Behavioural response is usually crying 
    • Social Referencing
      • It is the ability to understand social and emotional cues and behave accordingly in a hitherto unknown situation 
        • Usually done by imitating another person’s behaviour 
  • Empathy develops by 2 years of age
    • Empathy is the ability to understand the perspective from another person’s point of view and feel the same
  • Adolescence and adulthood
    • Adolescence period is also known as the time of “Storm and stress” due to:
      • Emotional upheavals
      • Varying intensities of emotions
    • During this time individuals develop emotionally in distinct ways and in different manner
    • Emotional intelligence begins to grow
    • Emotional selectivity theory – Here the individual looks to build on positive rewarding relationships that provide satisfaction and contentment while reducing peripheral relationships that may cause emotional risk
  • Temperament until age 15, post which it is termed as personality
    • Typical way an individual react to a particular type of stimuli.
      • Biological and emotional basis
      • Relatively consistent overtime
      • Personality builds around the core provided by the temperament
  • Goodness of Fit is the matching of the parent personality and the infants temperament
    • If fit is good, child rearing becomes easier
    • Difficult children are less likely than easy children to receive sensitive care
    • Goodness of fit depends in part on cultural values
  • Gender identity is the understanding of one’s own gender and roles associated with it.
    • An infant develops the understanding of its gender early in life
  • Gender schema: mental framework that categorizes the meaning of being male or female and the roles based on socialization 
    • However, psychological and behavioural differences exist between males and females          
  • Gender stereotyping are the beliefs about roles that are defined for males and females
    • Very high during middle childhood
    • Changes by adolescences as it undergoes a transition due to intimate relationships and changes in understanding sexuality
    • Gender socialization is important to understand flexibility of gender roles 
  • Females aid in the development of other individuals
  • Males role are contradictory and inconsistent
  • Attachment is a shared, continuing emotional tie between an infant and a caregiver where each contribute to building the quality of the relationship
    • Attachments can be of 4 types:
    • Secure attachment is the pattern of behaviour where the infant seeks out the caregiver in their absence and actively looks for them
    • Avoidant attachment is the pattern of behaviour where the infant rarely cries in the absence of the caregiver and doesn’t seek them when they return 
    • Ambivalent (resistant) attachment is the pattern of behaviour where the infant becomes anxious even before the caregiver leaves and extreme sadness is shown when they leave
    • Disorganized-disoriented attachment is the pattern of behaviour where the infant is unsure of how to behave when the caregiver is present, leaves and return. Showing extremities of contradictory behaviour