THINKING, INTELLIGENCE, & CREATIVITY (Free Access)
THINKING (Read: Thinking, Fast and Slow (Penguin Press Non-Fiction) )
- Associationism
- Based on causal history- this is how one’s thoughts are formed.
- Can be used as a theory of learning, thinking, mental structures, and implementation of thought.
- Gestalt Theoretical Perspectives
- Principle of Totality
- Any conscious experience must be considered globally as the mind is a dynamic part of the whole system.
- Principle of Psychophysical Isomorphism
- correlational between conscious experience and cerebral activity
- Productive Thinking
- Max Weitheimer
- solving a problem with insight
- situation and environment interaction
- Reproductive Thinking
- solving a problem with previous knowledge
- Fuzzy Trace Model – Dual Model
- memory and reasoning
- encoding information through verbatives and gist
- Verbatives – exact memory in detail
- Gist – semantic and conceptual
- Principle of Totality
- Concept formation is the process by which we learn to form classes of things, events, people and so forth.
- Concepts are of 3 types:
- Conjunctive – presence of at least two features
- Rational – how objects relate to something else
- Disjunctive – at least one of several features
- Prototypes
- Eleanor Posch
- ideal models used as a prime example
- They are highly representative
- Faulty concepts
- Thinking errors
- related to behaviour or personality maladjustment
- All or nothing thinking
- Concepts are of 3 types:
- Strategies of Concept Attainment for Problem Solving
- Simultaneous scanning
- Rational thinking : use of information to rationally eliminate hypothesis and think through to reach the one that can be true
- Ideal strategy if reasoning and memory are good
- Rigorous
- Successive scanning
- Tests a hypothesis at a time and moves towards a conclusion
- Guessing game. It is easier, requires less time and memory
- Conservative focusing
- Taking an example as representing the concept and using it to judge other examples
- Less efficient if the chosen concept is incorrect
- Best strategy for conjunctive problems
- Require less thinking and time
- Much better than successive scanning
- Focus gambling
- Uses one card but changes more than one feature at a time
- If lucky less time or else more time
- Do it
- if solving the problem in a few trials brings big rewards
- less to lose
- Simultaneous scanning
- Semantic Dimension
- Understanding meanings of word
- Takes longer and is slower than syntax
- Maybe dependent on intellectual development and maturity
- Semantic Differential
- Rating scale to measure commutative meaning of objects, events and concepts
- Commutative is the suggestive significance of a word apart from its explicit and recognized meaning
- Evaluation, potency and activity
- Evaluation
- good-bad
- Potency
- strong-weak
- Activity
- active-passive
- Evaluation
- Recognition by components
- Irving Biedesman (1987)
- recognition of objects by breaking them up into smaller recognizable shapes called geons.
- Geons are 3D shapes
- Eg. cylinder, cones
- can be assembled in many ways
- < 36 geons present as components
- Eg. cylinder, cones
- While perceiving objects we focus on
- Edges
- enables to maintain the same perception of the object regardless of viewing orientation
- Concavities
- the area where two geons meet,
- helping in separation of geons
- Edges
- Perception of objects doesn’t change regardless of angle because of viewpoint invariance
- may be due to invariant edge properties:
- curvature, parallel lines, co-termination, asymmetry, co-linearity
- may be due to invariant edge properties:
- Template matching model
- whole image to a stored representation of the whole object
- Feature matching model
- discriminating features from the images and matches them with known features of the object
- Configurable model
- Distinguishing among objects that share same basic parts of structure with a prototype
INTELLIGENCE & CREATIVITY
- Intelligence is the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason effectively, and to deal adaptively with the environment.
History
- Sir Francis Galton
- measured reaction time, hand strength, sensory acuity, and skull size
- believed that people from privileged backgrounds were more intelligent
- His mental skill measures were not valid or reliable because results were not complying
- Alfred Binet
- 2
assumptions
- mental abilities increase with age
- rate of gaining competence is a personal characteristic
- Intelligence
quotient (William Stern)
- MA/CAx100 (MA = Mental Age, CA = Chronological Age)
- Today IQ is an individual score in comparison to norms of other individuals of the same age
- 2
assumptions
- Lewis Terman created Stanford-Binet test (verbal items)
- Arthur Otis
- Army Alpha (verbal)
- Army Beta (non-verbal)
- Weschler (verbal and non-verbal) WAIS WISC WPPSI WAIS III WISC IV
NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE
- Two
major approaches
- Psychometric – structure and types of mental competencies
- Cognitive – thought process underlying mental competencies
Psychometric theoretical approach
- Statistical study of intelligence using observable measures
- Factor analysis was used to arrive at components
- Reduction of larger measures
to smaller clusters
- Charles Spearman
- g-factor – general intelligence
- s-factor – specific intelligence
- L.L. Thurstone
- 7
distinct abilities called “Primary Mental Abilities”
- verbal comprehension
- perceptual speed
- number
- spatial visualisation
- associative memory
- word fluency
- reasoning
- 7
distinct abilities called “Primary Mental Abilities”
- Charles Spearman
- (Study Tip: VPN-SAW-R)
- Raymond Cattell and Horn
- Broke
Spearman’s general intelligence “g” into 2 subtypes
- Crystallized
intelligence (gc) is the ability to apply previously learned knowledge
to current problems (vocals and info tests)
- Creates expertise
- Fluid
intelligence (gf) – arriving at novel problem solving situation which
does not develop out of personal experience
- inductive reasoning
- reason abstractly, logical, management of info in working memory
- Crystallized
intelligence (gc) is the ability to apply previously learned knowledge
to current problems (vocals and info tests)
- Humans move from fluid to crystallized through life
- Broke
Spearman’s general intelligence “g” into 2 subtypes
- Carollus
- Three
structure model
- g
- + Broad
- Narrow
- Three
structure model
- Guilford’s Structure of
Intellect Model
- Operations (5)
- Products (6)
- Contents (5)
- 150 components are possible
- Also
known as
- SI Theory
- Factor analysis
- OPC Model
- Raymond Cattell and Horn
Operations (5) | Products (6) | Contents (5) |
Cognition | Unitssingle item of knowledge | Visualperceived through seeing |
2. Memory | 2. Classes sets sharing common attributes | 2. Auditory learning |
3. Divergent Production | 3. Relations units linked as opposites, associates, etc. | 3. Symbolic symbols |
4. Convergent Production | 4. Systems multiple relationsinterrelated networks | 4. Semantic meaning and ideas |
5. Evaluation | 5. Transformation changes – prospective, conversion or mutation of knowledge | 5. Behavioural Acts |
6. Implication prediction, inferences, anticipation of knowledge |
- Gave emphasis to divergent
production (thinking) with 4 characteristics
- Fluency – great number of ideas
- Flexibility – variety of approaches
- Originality – new, novel ideas
- Elaboration – systematize and organise ideas
- (Study Tip: F for FOE)
Cognitive Process theories
- Explore specific information-processing and cognitive process that underlie intellectual ability
- Robert Sternberg- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- psychological process and diverse intelligence
- 3 components:
- Meta components
- Higher order processes used to plan and regulate task performance
- Type of fluid intelligence
- Performance
- mental processes used to perform based on experience
- type of crystallized intelligence
- Knowledge acquisition
- learning from experiences, store information, combine new insights and previously acquired information
- combining crystallized and fluid intelligence
- Further 3 different classes of adaptive problem solving were suggested (APC)
- Analytical intelligence
- academically oriented problem solving
- traditional intelligence
- Practical intelligence
- skills to cope with daily needs
- Creative intelligence
- mental skills for novel problems
- Analytical intelligence
- Other theories
- Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
- Visuospatial intelligence
- Interpersonal intelligence
- Linguistic intelligence
- Logical-mathematical intelligence
- Natural intelligence
- Intrapersonal intelligence
- Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
- Musical intelligence
- Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
- (Study Tip: VILL NIBM)
- Jensen Intelligence Theory (Arthur Jensen)
- Level 1 (equal among races)
- memory ability and simple associative learning
- Level 2 (unequal among races)
- abstract reasoning and conceptual thought
- Whites and Asians have more
- Level 1 (equal among races)
- Vernon
- Hierarchical Model of Intelligence
- Jensen Intelligence Theory (Arthur Jensen)
- Culture Fair/Free Intelligence Tests
- 1st – Army Examination Beta
- Non-verbal material
- They include Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD)
- Culture Free Self Esteem Inventories
- Black Intelligence Tests of Cultural Homogeneity
- Raven Progressive Matrices
- Not completely free
- Cattell’s Culture Fair
- 1-3 scales
- Age > 4
- Cultural experience
- Verbal ability
- Educational level
- Special education
- Goleman – Emotional Intelligence
- 5 components
- Emotional self-awareness
- Self-regulation
- Motivation
- Empathy
- Social skills
- 5 components
- Emotional Intelligence given by John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey
- 4 components
- Perceiving emotions nonverbally
- Using emotions to facilitate thought
- Understanding emotions and creating action
- Managing emotions
- Measured by – Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence
- 4 components
Measurement of IQ
- WAIS
– verbal (6) and Performance (5) = (11)
- Verbal
& Performance
- Information
- Digit symbol
- Comprehension
- Picture completion
- Arithmetic
- Block Design
- Similarities
- Picture Arrangement
- Letter-number sequencing
- Object Assembly
- Vocabulary
- Verbal
& Performance
- Psychometric standards
- Correlation of IQ and Academic Performances are .60 for high school
- Flynn effect
- increase in intelligence across the world
- 3 points per decade
- Cultural measurements
- 2
ways
- Reasoning problems without any cultural knowledge base (eg. Ravens Progressive Matrices)
- creating measures tied to specific cultures
- 2
ways
- Heredity, Intelligence and
Environment correlation coefficient
- 0.50 – 0.70 due to genes
- Group differences
- Arthur Jensen argued for ethnically based intelligence
- Difference are due to genetics of different ethnicities
- Research on IQ shows:
- Japanese have highest IQ.
- Asian-Americans less than White Americans in verbal but more on spatial and mathematical reasoning
- Hispanic same as white
- African-Americans below white
- Is intelligence testing
biased?
- 2
types
- a)
Outcome bias
- underestimation of a person’s true intellectual ability
- b)
Predictive bias
- Successful measurement for some groups but not others
- a)
Outcome bias
- 2
types
- Sex differences in types of
intelligences
- Men > women on spatial tools, target directed, mathematical reasoning
- Women > men on perceptual speed, verbal fluency, mathematical calculations
- Extremes of Intelligence
- Intellectually gifted have an IQ > 130
- Success
depends on
- highly developed mental abilities
- creative problem solving
- motivation and dedication
- Mental Retardation
- Mild – 50 – 70
- Moderate – 35 – 50
- Severe – 20 – 35
- Profound – < 20
Creativity
- Mel Rhodes
- 4 P’s
- process
- product
- person
- place
- 4 P’s
- Wallas
- 5 stages
- Guilford
- Convergent thinking
- Divergent thinking
- Major approaches
- Guilford
- based on divergent thinking (production) Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, Elaboration
- Traits of creative people and not creative people can help distinguish
- Many components or traits
- Think with greater fluency
- ideational theory
- associational theory
- expressional theory
- Flexibility
- spontaneous
- adaptive
- Originality
- Elaboration
- Quantity vs Quality
- Group vs Individual thinking
- Mednick
- to think of an idea in a new, improbable way
- created Remote Associates Test (RAT)
- word finding test
- three words are given, the idea is to think of one word that resembles all three present
- Wallas – predicting of creative thought depends on previous creative accomplishment
- 4 processes
- Preparation
- Incubation
- Illumination
- Verification
- 4 processes
- Terrence
- Minnesota studies confirmed that creative boys felt alienated because:
- sanctions against divergence
- may not be well rounded
- learn on their own
- attempt difficult tasks
- searching for a purpose
- Terrence Test for Creative Thinking (TTCT) based on creativity process
- Minnesota studies confirmed that creative boys felt alienated because:
- Guilford
●Threshold Theory – Intelligence is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for creativity. There is a moderate positive relationship between creativity and intelligence until IQ ~120.
●Certification Theory – Creativity is not intrinsically related to intelligence. Instead, individuals are required to meet the requisite level intelligence in order to gain a certain level of education/work, which then in turn offers the opportunity to be creative. Displays of creativity are moderated by intelligence.
●Interference Theory – Extremely high intelligence might interfere with creative ability.
- Creativity and Intelligence
- Getzel and Jackson
- When contrasting ‘high creativity’ and ‘high i.q.’ groups, it was found that the ‘high i.q.’ group was preferred by teachers
- independent traits (adolescents)
- Creative children do not do as well on standardized tests as there is no room for creativity.
- used word association
- uses of things
- hidden shape
- fables
- make up problems
- Wallach and Kogan administered 5 measures of creativity
- Creativity tests and intelligence measures correlated r = .09.
- Getzel and Jackson
- Spearman
- decided separate states to creativity
- Intelligence threshold below which creativity cannot exist
- Suggested Reading(s):
- Introduction to Psychology
- A Brief Introduction to Psychology
- Summarizing Psychology